Colonial Williamsburg Digital Library

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The Educational Opportunities of Children in Colonial Virginia
by
Robert C. Gerling

The easiest ways of becoming acquainted with the modes of thinking, the rules of conduct, and the prevailing manners of any people is to examine what sort of education they give their children…¹

Much has been written about the southern gentry and their support of and desire to educate their children. The question of schooling and educational opportunities for children in less wealthy Southern families has been all but ignored by most of these colonial historians. There were, in fact, also schools available to those thousands of children in most other families and some interesting evidence has survived to give us a better understanding of their opportunities and attitudes on education.

The claim that Virginia's harsh environment, lack of urban settlement and many rivers which divided the land and scattered the people and plantations limited schooling is perhaps acceptable in the seventeenth century as a reason for fewer schools and "educational opportunities being limited to the wealthy, who could maintain a plantation tutor."² Whatever obstacles the 2 environment and geography presented the early settlers were all but conquered in the early eighteenth century. My recent examination of county records, newspaper accounts and the laws colonial Virginia indicated strong support of and desire to see that some schooling and education was to be provided to nearly all children. The evidence is quite convincing that many children could have attended a school in Virginia during most the eighteenth century. For instance, the numbers of people in the colony who can be clearly identified as schoolmasters or schoolmistresses is noteworthy. Perhaps even comparable to modern day percentages of educators to population figures.

These schoolmasters are mentioned in many local government records throughout the colony. The shelves in urban and rural stores were stocked with a variety of books, many of which can be identified as children's books. Some accounts suggest that children's books were "best sellers" and would certainly support the idea that children were reading for pleasure. Personal accounts and court records such as wills and guardian accounts include payments for schooling and many times also mention a schoolmaster or schoolmistress by name.

York County, Virginia
Estate of Joseph Buck, decd.³
__________1736

to one yrs. school with Mr. Wilkenson	1. 1. 0
3
to 1 book	0. 0. 9
to paper and ink powder	0. 0.7 ½

These examples demonstrate the concern and desire of a father to have all his children educated, and the simple, but necessary expenses of schooling for one year.

York County, Virginia
Will of Matthew Pierce⁴
September 4, 1737
and my will & desire is that all my youngest children will live with him [oldest son Matthew] if they think fit on my plantation until they may come of age or choose their guardians and that they be educated and maintained out of the profits of their Estate.

The Northumberland County records include a case in 1734 when Mary Young, a schoolmistress, was evicted from a room she leased for one year and used as a school room. The record stated that she had nine scholars, plus children of the defendant, John Cralee. After four months of the lease she was evicted and later challenged the owner in court. The court ruled in favor of the schoolmistress and the jury awarded her 600 pounds of tobacco as damages.⁵

What are we then to conclude from this evidence and the existence of such material as Bray's eighteenth century black school records in Williamsburg where, some local craftsmen and others were sending the children of their slaves to be educated? 4 Were they not then, themselves providing schooling and an education for their own children? Could we assume that education and schooling was important to most eighteenth century Virginia families?

The most fundamental evidence of schooling is the colonial laws written concerning children and their education. By the early seventeenth century, the English Statute of Artificers was being applied in Virginia.⁶ The statute outlined conditions and provisions of apprentice labor and training. It further required the local government to apprentice poor orphans to responsible tradesmen and families.

It tis also ordered by this present Vestry that all orphan children be bound out by the parish hereafter that if they cannot read at thirteen years old that then they shall be sett free from their then saide master or mistress or to be taken from them.⁷

Mary Grisskell apprentices her daughter Tracy Grisskell to Tully Whithurst and Polly his wife, until age 18, to be taught to sew and to read and write.⁸

Indentures sometime varied in child maintenance provisions and term of service but the requirement to provide some basic education in reading and writing was consistent.

William Bryan, an orphan of John Bryan decd. be bound to Mr. Thomas Haynes who is to 5 teach him to read the Bible disstinctly to write a good leadgable hand and the trade of a Cooper.⁹

Anthony George, orphan of Thomas George decd. is by the court bound to William Pitman til the years of twentyone his said master is to give him one years schooling and to learn him the trade of a bricklayer and to find and provide him with sufficient and wholesome and cleanly dyet lodging and apparel and at the Expiration of his Servitude to pay and allow him as is appointed for servants by Indenture or Custom.¹⁰

Some apprenticeships even included studies in arithmetic, and to the "Rule of Three" or beyond.¹¹

Ordered that William Absolum be bound to Maxl Boush, jr. for five years and a half, that he teach the said Orphan to read, write and arithmetick as far as the Rule of three and the trade of a cabinetmaker and take Indentures to that purpose.¹²

The Double Rule of Three, by some called the Rule of Five, is when five terms are given to find a sixth.

William Skelton of F'bg. with consent of mother Hannah Skelton, apprenticed himself to William Smock, Saddler of F'bg. for 6 years and 5 mos. to learn trade and mystery of a sadler and be given schooling as far as the Double Rule of Three.¹³

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Apprenticeships were not uncommon for eighteenth century boys. Both apprenticed boys and girls were trained in useful trades and skills and at least introduced to a formal education, perhaps an underestimated motive of parents, by historians. Other children though, were apprenticed to a master after having already completed several years of schooling. In the York County, Virginia Guardians Accounts are examples of boys like John Moss who was schooled for four years and had dancing lessons for one year prior to his apprenticeship in 1765 to Isaac Hobday, Master Wheelwright. William Potter was schooled three years before being apprenticed in 1765 to Jones Irwin, Master Joiner in Yorktown. His account included information that his mother was to do washing, mending and provide clothing and the master agreed to continue his schooling in reading and writing.

As early as 1727, a Virginia law was written requiring that parents educate their children in both reading and writing.¹⁴ Every Virginia family bore the responsibility for teaching their children to read and write or have them taught those subjects. The York County, Virginia, records include examples of local authorities binding out children whose parents or guardians neglected to educate them according to this law. Such was the case of Elizabeth Godfrey when the church wardens of Bruton Parish had her apprenticed because her parents neglected 7 "to take care of her education according to the law."¹⁵

Williamsburg's Virginia Gazette newspaper in the eighteenth century is also a convincing source on the availability and extent of education and schooling for children. Dozens of advertisements appear announcing private schools to be taught by both schoolmasters and schoolmistresses. Equally significant are the many "help wanted" advertisements in which plantation families seek the service of a qualified schoolmaster for their children. The private schools were often times held in a schoolmaster's home, quarters or a schoolhouse. The students are often referred to as scholars and their parents or estates paid individually and for their books. Topics varied from the basic, beginning of formal studies to the many arts and languages which they might also be taught.

JOHN WALKER
LATELY arriv'd in Williamsburg from London and who for ten years past has been engag'd in the Education of Youth, undertakes to instruct young Gentlemen in Reading, Writing, Arithmetick, the most material Branches of Classical Learning, and ancient and modern Geography and History; but, as the noblest End of Erudition and Human Attainments, he will exert his principal Endeavours to improve their Morals, in Proportion to their Progress in Learning, that no Parent may repent his Choice in trusting him with the Education of his Children.

Mrs. Walker, likewise teaches young Ladies all Kinds of Needle Work; makes Capuchins, Shades, Hats, and Bonnets; and will endeavour to give Satisfaction to those who shall honour her with their Custom.

The above-mentioned John Walker and his Wife, live at Mr. Cobb's new House, next to 8 Mr. Cobbs, near the Road going down to the Capitol Landing. ¹⁶

John Bruce, MA. Will give good Encouragement to a Person of irreproachable Morals, capable of assisting him to teach the GREEK, LATIN and ENGLISH LANGUAGES. Such a person's being acquainted with the different Branches of the MATHEMATICS, and excelling in WRITING, will be an additional Recommendation. Application may be made to himself, at his own Room, over against the Church, Head of Cumberland Street, Norfolk.¹⁷

This latter advertisement suggests that John Bruce had enough scholars to require him to seek an additional teacher to assist him.

ANY sober diligent Person that is duly qualified to keep a Country School, is desired to apply to Mr. Thomas Brewer of Nansemond County, where he will meet with Encouragement; he promising to assure such Master Twenty Four Scholars.¹⁸

THE Subscriber wants a sober Man that is able to instruct Children in Reading, Writing, and Arithmetick; and will give any such Person, that comes well recommended, by the first day of January, his Board and Twenty-five Pounds Year.
John Edlet ¹⁹

WANTED, single Woman, able to teach about 12 or 15 children, most of them G'rls, in Reading, Writing, and Needle Work. Such One, of good character, qualified as above, may have SIXTY POUNDS per Year, by applying to the Subscribers in York and Warwick Counties.
9 EDWARD HARWOOD
WILLIAM HEWITT ²⁰

Some free schools also existed in the colony and are perhaps some of the earliest examples of schooling children in Virginia outside the home. The Symes Free School was opened in 1643 in Elizabeth City County and another example was the Matthew Whaley Free School in Williamsburg established in 1706. These schools were endowed with private funds and open "to the neediest children of the Parish who shall be offered reading, writing arithmetick."²¹ These free schools were free of latin studies, and contrary to the implication of the name, were not free to most students.

The youngest children learned their ABC's from a hornbook before the introduction of alphabet books, blocks and puzzles in the late eighteenth century. A hornbook was a paddle shaped piece of board or leather with a single lesson page covered by a thin, transparent piece of cow horn. The enclosed page usually included the alphabet, numerals to ten and the Lord's Prayer. The teaching method was simple. Children would memorize these basics at home before attending a school. The cardboard battledores also appear in the eighteenth century and like the hornbook included the letters, numerals and a prayer or scripture.

The first book to succeed the hornbook or battledore for children was a primmer. A primmer was a "learn to read" book and 10 many different examples were available and found on the shelves of Virginia stores. In addition to the alphabet, they might include a syllabarium with words up to six syllables, a morning and evening prayer and a grace to be said before meals. The letters of the alphabet were illustrated with a picture representing a biblical scene or moral verse to be learned.

A child advancing beyond the primmer was then ready for writing, spelling and grammar studies. Writing was also begun at an early age and many beginners purchased a slate and slate pencil before learning penmanship and how to use a feather pen and ink. Like the primmer, spelling books are frequently found in orphans' accounts, private accounts and there were many examples sold in the local stores. One speller which sold for many years at the Virginia Gazette printing office in Williamsburg was Thomas Dilworth's, The Child's New Spelling Book.²² It also included some elementary grammar studies. Children's books of all types were being printed in England during the 17th and 18th centuries. Some Virginians would even order them directly from English merchants and agents along with other goods.

Williamsburg,
13 Jan. 1769

[To Mr. John Norton, London]

I send you a list of bills and 11 a memo. of a few books for my children, which you'll be pleased to send me by the earliest opportunity.

Yr. afftc. ms. obt. sert.
Robert C. Nicholas

²³

The private school advertisements in the Virginia Gazette frequently mention the teaching of arithmetic along with reading and writing. Arithmetic is the science of numbers, whereas mathematics would be the science of quantity. Understanding basic arithmetic was important to boys and girls, and part of their education. It was not, however, required in the statute of 1727, concerning formal schooling of Virginia children. Whether you grew up, as most girls would, to manage a household and raise a family or as most boys, to learn a skill and work at agriculture, a trade, or business — some arithmetic skills would be necessary as a part of most routine work. Arithmetic books, like many other children's books of this period were sold in the local stores as well Williamsburg areas. Allason's rural store was not stocked to serve the gentry families, yet among his merchandise is Cocker's Arithmetic and other children's books.²⁴ Besides the school books, it should also be noted that many other examples of children's books and 12 play things are found in the same store accounts and private estate inventories. Like some adults, there were children spending time reading for pleasure in the eighteenth century. Stories with true appeal for young readers were made available with the appearance of tales like Tom Thumb's Folio for Little Giants, to which was added an abstract of the life of Mr. Thumb. Children could now read about the wonderful character, whom their parents knew as a familiar personality at Bartholomew Fair.²⁵ Early English fiction for children included Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe which was being printed in both adult and children versions and appears in store accounts by the early 1770's. Other children's books included picture books such as A Pretty Book of Pictures and A Pretty Little Plaything, poetry books, adventure stories like The Adventures of Jack Wander, moral tales such as The History of Little Goody Two Shoes and entertaining fables like Aesop's and others.

As an example of specifically aged children to school material, the references of Phillip Fithian and John Harrower can be cited and, I believe, related to these families below the gentry. In 1773, Fithian was tutoring the children of Robert Carter and Harrower was an indentured servant who tutored for Col. William Dangerfield 1773-1776. At Nomini Hall, when Fithian arrived in the Autumn of 1773, he found eight pupils. Ben, seventeen years old, was reading Sallust and studying Latin and 13 Greek grammar; Bob and Harry, the latter a nephew of Mr. Carter, were fourteen and studied English and arithmetic; Priscilla, thirteen, was reading the Spectator and beginning arithmetic; Nancy, eleven, was reading out of the spelling book and beginning to write; Fanny, nine, was simply reading in the spelling book; and Harriet, five was just beginning the alphabet. John Harrower at Belvedere Plantation had three children in his charge, apart from those sent by neighboring planters: Edwin, ten, was just beginning two syllable words in the spelling book; Bathurst, six, still on the alphabet (but three years later he had completed a reading of both the Old and New Testaments); and William only four years of age was just beginning.²⁶

In conclusion, I believe that by looking at a combination of these surviving records and references that a better understanding of educational opportunities emerges for the families of craftsmen and small farmers. The colony would not have grown so strong so quickly if education were limited to the gentry or allowed to be limited by geography in the eighteenth century. The materials and resources to teach and to learn were available and affordable. The emphasis on basics was more than adequate for the eighteenth century standards and living. In short, the evidence seems strong and varied that schooling and the education of children in reading, writing, and arithmetic was significant and available to most Virginia families.